Ethical language is meaningless Essay

Twentieth Century ethics has been highly dominated by linguistics. Ethicists now worked to discover the meanings of terms such as â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad†. This goes beyond normative ethics such as Utilitarianism, Kantian ethics or Virtue ethics but rather looks at the usefulness and meaningfulness of ethical language, known as Meta ethics. It also tries to understand the meaning of terms used in descriptive ethics usually used by sociologists. Ethical language can be divided into cognitive language which is realistic and objective, drawing ethical statements from nature and believing it to be true fact. On the other hand it can be non-Cognitive, ethical language which is anti-realist and subjective. Logical Positivists, Ethical Naturalists and Intuitionists believe ethical statements are true as the have a distinct purpose when using a particular word. Ethical Naturalists and Logical Positivists believe only Cognitive ethical language is true as it describes facts. Whereas Descriptivists and Prescriptivists argue, although when referring to ethical language it may be subjective, it still has significance and has meaning. In this essay I will assess to what extent ethical language is meaningful, arguing it is fair to state all ethical language offers some instruction to society and is therefore meaningful. Ethical Naturalists also argue ethical language has an underlined content of purpose. For example a knife is good if it cuts sharply. Therefore ethical language is showing what terms such as ‘good’ mean through the content of purpose within an ethical statement and is therefore meaningful in informing us on ethical terms such as ‘good’ or ‘bad’. However, ethical Naturalists disregard the complexity of ethical language. This critique is put forward by G.E. Moore, an intuitionist. Intuitionist G.E. Moore whose work is influenced by David Hume argues that it is wrong to derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’. Although the world may be in a particular state it doesn’t mean we can draw ethical terms from the natural word. Rather ethical language is sometimes used to discuss supernatural concepts such as God and therefore ethical naturalism‘s argument as to why  ethical language is meaningful is absurd. Moore states we can still ask ‘what is good?’ this leads to an open question argument which displays the ethical naturalist argument as to why ethical language is meaningful may not be fully sufficient. However intuitionists do argue ethical language is meaningful but only due to the fact that intuition is used to conduct ethical statements. Moore uses the Simple Notion to suggest although we cannot fully describe what good is, ‘we just know good is good and that’s the end of the fact’. He uses the analogy of yellow, stating just as we can’t describe yellow without giving examples we can’t describe good without referring to good with examples. It is therefore an indescribable truth. On the other hand A. J. Ayer argues ethical language is merely expressions of ones inclinations, emotions and feelings. He worked closely with the Vienna Circle who brought about Logical Positivism. Due to their belief that ethical language was simply expressions of opinion they stated it is of little use. A J Ayer stated that there were only two types of meaningful statements – analytical statements, ones which contain the preposition with the statement e.g a bachelor is an unmarried man, and synthetic statements, which are those that can be tested by sense experience. Ethical statements do not fit into either of these categories and were therefore largely not meaningful to the Logical Positivists. Many may argue that this is a pessimistic and limited view of ethical language. In addition Hare goes beyond descriptivism, stating ethical statements are actually prescriptive and therefore meaningful as they can act as imperatives. Not only are they saying ‘boo’ to murder or ‘hurrah’ to charity but stating ‘I wouldn’t steal, so neither should you’ or ‘I will give to charity so so should you’. In this sense ethical language is meaningful as not only does it provide universal norms or arouse feeling but place imperatives on what one sees as wrong or right, therefore offering some sense of guidelines to act ethically and morally. However one may argue why should one imperative be chosen over another?

Innovation, Design, and Creativity Essay

Innovation, design, and creativity are typically interchangeable, but are in fact defined as separate qualities with business implications that can be compared and contrasted. While some companies can survive solely on creativity, a rise in global competition has domestic companies striving to develop more innovative products and services. These new found ideas are then made concrete by implementing a successful design. Creativity is the creation of a new idea or concept. The term is a necessary step towards the innovative process of applying a creative idea. Creativity is an essential building block for innovation (von Stamm, 2003). A person that is naturally creative must have broad vision to meet organizational challenges. These visionaries are a company’s adventurers and risk takers who see and think further than most. Innovation equals creativity plus successful implementation (von Stamm, 2003). The introduction of a new idea should be implemented within all levels of a c ompany; from upper management executives to mere janitors. In order to have an innovative product or service, it has to be converted from an idea into action; the creativity is delivered or put into effect. Design is the conscious decision-making process by which an idea is transformed into an outcome, be it a tangible product or intangible service (von Stamm, 2003). It is about researching possible outcomes to particular scenarios and selecting the best design thereafter. Any obstacles that conflict with a creative idea will be resolved with design. Teamwork may help since the design implementation may be too complex for one person’s expertise; a person typically does not possess creativity, innovation, and design; which is what is needed for a total quality result. Although I’m unemployed at the moment, these three concepts were successfully applied in my previous organization. As a former Accounts Payable Clerk, my direct supervisor thought like a designer by thinking about our department’s future goals, rather than focusing solely on the present (or current) accounts. This calculated decision making process is defined as design but without having an initial creativity and innovation, the successful design of an organization could not be possible. Reference von Stamm, B. (2003). Managing innovation, design and creativity, 1e. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-Text]. : John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, OI361 website.

Public Administration Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Public Administration - Case Study Example there is a pertinent role that deserves to be played by the stakeholders so that the negative effects that it has had in US are neutralized and mitigated. The federal government is tasked with the responsibility of taking care of border security, custom points and controlling the process of becoming an American citizen. Conversely, the state governments as well as the federal governments are tasked with the onus and charge of handling illegal immigration issues (Espenshade, 2005). The state and the local governments provide education, health, medical and social services to the illegal immigrants. This is another reason the issue of illegal immigration is an intergovernmental one. Shafritz & Russell (2012) say that illegal immigration is an issue that has been politically significant. The US constitution has very little on the immigration issue, and this has given room for the issue to be used politically since there are no clear guidelines in the US Constitution for dealing with the issue. Consequently, governments have always resorted to coming up with state laws that are meant to curb this issue. In the press, there have been divided opinions on the best why that the state and federal governments can use to handle and fully tackle this problem. Despite the divided opinions on the issue and the politicization of the matter, every member of the American society agrees that the issue needs to be dealt with and failing to do so will result in even more problems for both the state and the federal government. Solving the illegal immigration issue requires the full involvement in the various levels of governments. The reason this cooperation and collaboration is necessary is the fact that the matter is an issue that is cross cutting (Kennedy, 2004). No level of government is spared from the negative impacts of illegal immigration into America. The federal government is required to play the biggest role in handling the issue of the illegal immigration. This is

Managing the HR Function Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Managing the HR Function - Essay Example So it is possible in principle to be included via representative participation (e.g., by union members or by members of the same group assessing acceptability and fairness of selection processes or instruments) (Dale, 2006). The importance of rigorous and detailed job analysis in underpinning human resource development and in sustaining an integrated approach to human resource management cannot be overestimated. Recruitment and selection procedures, training needs analysis, and appraisal procedures etc., are all likely to benefit from job or competency definitions which are produced directly from an analysis of job behaviors. As a result procedures for recruitment and selection, etc. are likely to be more accurate and less susceptible to bias and distortion than some other previously utilized techniques, for example, the traditional interview process relying on instinctive criteria or a 'gut feeling'. Person specification involves education and training information, qualifications and personal qualities. It is likely that job descriptions would conform to the framework discussed earlier for competencies. That is, they would be composed of elements which appear to be generic to most managerial positions (Dale, 2006). Second, that strong occupational sector-specific criteria are also to the fore, and third, that some considerable individuation occurring either through organization-determined or individual needs would also be present in any actual job description that applies to a particular manager in a particular organization (Wood and Payne, 1998). Information is collected about a job in a structured manner and computer analyzed in order to meet a variety of objectives; including, the specification of job tasks and job context, profiling of human attributes required for effective job performance, and the identification of relevant assessment methods. For example, a job descriptio n and person specification can be made through a questionnaire, and can be supplemented with 'validation' interviews conducted by the job analyst where the respondent is questioned about his/her responses Dale, 2006). The advantage and strength of person specifications is that the occupational standards approach advocates the use of 'range statements', describing the range of contexts and applications in which a employees would be expected to achieve the outcome. A specification of the range of contexts in which competence is to be demonstrated is not however a substitute for an assessment of competence which reflects the influence of the organizational climate/environment on an individual's actions/behavior (Wood and Payne, 1998). Where the latter is seen as a necessary and essential part of an individual's competence assessment the occupational standards approach may not, at least in its entirety, be sufficient. In order to perform the job effectively, the breadth of job related knowledge is regarded by managers as substantial across all functions. Leaders of large organizations see the job itself as undergoing basic change. It would seem necessary therefore, first, that anyone who wishes succes sfully to discharge leadership functions must anticipate coping with ongoing change in the organizational environment, and second, that he or she must recognize that leadership is itself undergoing a substantial transformation (Slowik, 2001). Person

Leadership--Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Leadership--Decision Making - Essay Example Their effectiveness is impeded by what a number of scholars see as an avoidance of risk encouraged in the initial period of their profession. Moreover, military leaders usually fail to completely or appropriately recognize the global or diplomatic consequences of their decisions. Military leaders could have influential memories of pleasures, anxieties, failures, or triumphs that they experienced. In most instances, these emotions were beneficial to them. They have their own interests at risk in the decisions they make and the actions they take. If these judgments influence only them, their emotions will aid them in arriving at the appropriate solution. However, when their own interests go against their duties, their decision can be lopsided. Introduction The negative ramifications of taking risks or committing errors alongside lack of awareness about military and political circumstances usually results in wrong decisions. Incorrect decisions can imply strategic failure. Wrong decisio ns by military leaders are not only caused by risk aversion or fear of mistakes, but also by emotional factors. ... This paper will discuss how risk aversion and emotion negatively affect military leaders’ judgment or decision making process. Strategic Decision Making The mission of ambitious strategic military leader at present will be to gain the skill of integrating productively, maybe even combine, the function of strategic diplomatic decision maker with the function of strategic military decision maker (Flowers, 2004). According to Friedman, â€Å"connectivity is productivity†¦ connection enables, disconnection enables† (Granger, 2002, 38); strategic leaders should build settings of regional security by facilitating the formation of democratic mechanisms of the relationship between the military and civilians (Granger, 2002). Hence, as the bound between the military leader and the policymaker becomes more and more intricate, strategic leaders should concentrate on building matching capabilities and an awareness of both their independent and collective duties in the process o f making decisions (Taylor & Rosenbach, 2000) for national security. Risk Evaluation, Assumption, and Aversion Groups of US military leaders are burgeoning without being empowered and with inadequate knowledge of how to evaluate and afterwards be equipped to assume risks for the realization of a military goal (Flowers, 2004). Hence, there is a weakening of the important principle which strengthens every military unit, that is, the audacity to take risks. Risk is defined by FM 100-14 as â€Å"the probability and severity of a potential loss that may result from hazards due to the presence of an enemy, an adversary, or some other hazardous condition† (Granger, 2002, 38). Risk assessment, assumption, and aversion,

College and career readiness ( my target group is high school Assignment

College and career readiness ( my target group is high school students) - Assignment Example Consequently, many children of black origin had to cover many blocks to attend schools whereas there were schools in their neighborhood but they could not school there since they were â€Å"whites schools.’† He goes on to say that, the supreme court of United States ruled unanimously that separate educational facilities brought inequalities in the education system in the USA. This was a breakthrough in the fight against racial segregation as well as opening similar cases across the United States as similar cases were filed all over. It also brought to light the injustices that came with segregation as it exposed the fact that the black schools had fewer amenities as compared to the white schools. Attempts were made to protect the school segregation policy, but the Brown case was important in the fight against discrimination (Delinder, 2004). The separation of schools was put into place in 1868 when the fourteenth amend was adopted. This was further fortified by the 1896 Plessy V. Fergusson case which ensured that the white and the African American children did not attend the same schools. A change in this system necessitated as was put forward by the then (1954) Chief Justice Warren (Delinder 2004). According to Uscourts.gov (n.d) the case that came to be famously referred to as Brown Vs Board of Education of Topeka was in fact a group of instances that were to be heard by the Supreme Court of the USA. They were about racial segregation of schools in the USA. These cases included; Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v. Elliot, Davis v. Board of Education of Prince Edward County (VA.), Boiling v. Sharpe, and Gebhart v. Ethel. While all of them had different details all of them had one issue; constitutionally state-sponsored racial segregation in public schools. After hearing the case, a three-judge panel ruled against the plaintiffs in favor of the education board. Consequently, the plaintiffs appealed to

Policy paper (stating the solutions to improve the security in Kenya Assignment

Policy paper (stating the solutions to improve the security in Kenya using help from the international community) - Assignment Example These solutions however cannot be handled by the country alone and the international community will have to chip in if they are to be successful in this endeavor. The resulting aim will be beneficial to all involved as a safer country will lead to a more prosperous environment which will allow for an increase in the co operation of countries and organizations in sectors such as business and other areas of international concerns (Hastings, 2012). The first step in ensuring that the security threat is efficiently dealt with is the creation of new policies that will enable Kenya and the cooperating countries to meet this menace head on. There are a number of policies that can be implemented that will assist in the achievement of this goal, they include: Military Support The main security threat facing the country consists of militants based in neighboring countries who happen to have armed forces at their disposal and use this resource to cause havoc in the areas that they wish to contr ol (Prabhakaran, 2008). These areas includes places such as the countries borders where they have attempted to take control of the region so as to enhance their control and hold over the areas that they wish to take charge of. ... Military support in this case will consist of the sending of troops to these areas to support the local military in their attempt to gain back control of the regions that have been most affected by the invasion of these terrorist armed forces. The additional provision of extra men will increase the country’s ability to fight back where necessary especially in the areas that have been suffering frequent attacks form these militants and will enhance the probability of victory during battles (Prabhakaran, 2008). The troops will also provide extra man power for activities such as border control that will allow them to cover the areas that are patrolled more efficiently and without the exhaustion of the resources at the country’s disposal. Military support can also include the sending of weapons that will allow the country to fight these attacks more efficiently and hopefully in the process discourage the militants from attempting to wage war on the soldiers that have been s ent to these regions (Prabhakaran, 2008). It should be noted that the individuals kidnapped from this region are not always of Kenyan origin and some are expatriates who happen to be working in the area at that point in time thus this support will not only be for the protection of the Kenyan people alone but also the citizens of other international areas who operate in this region. Access Control This can be described as the restrictive control of regions of concern that will make it difficult for unauthorized people to enter these areas (Prabhakaran, 2008). Access control can also refer to restrictive prohibitions of other items such as Visas that allow entry into the country without a stern background check to confirm that the individual in question does not harbor any ill will that may be the

Special Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Special Education - Essay Example Qualitative research can â€Å"see precisely which events led to which consequences and derive fruitful explanations† (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 1). Moreover, it has a higher chance of being able to arrive at unanticipated findings and new combinations and relationships. These reasons are why the qualitative research design had been chosen for this study as it can give a clear view of why students with disabilities drop out of high school. It must be clarified that although quantitative data, such as statistics and percentages, were used in the study, it only acted as supportive numbers that laid the groundwork for this study. Furthermore, it is intended for this qualitative research to act as a recursive study for more accurate and extensive quantitative study on the same topic. The study employed a qualitative research design that was based on active observation. The qualitative research design has been criticized by many for its supposed inexactness due to its â€Å"interpretative, subjective, impressionistic and diagnostic† nature as it has been claimed that there is no unbiased observer (Thomson, 2007). However, when contending with abstract data, like â€Å"the often contradictory behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and relationships of individuals† and in this case, the reasons why certain people act a particular way, active observation is best employed as its strength lies in its capability to be able to provide a textual characterization of complex events such as human experience (Mack, et al., 2005).

The East Asian World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The East Asian World - Essay Example Yongzheng and Qianlong continued Kangxi’s support for the arts and culture and maintained peace and order. The first signs of internal problems began under Qianlong, however (e.g. corruption and expenses of military campaigns). The main characteristics of the Manchu rule were their ability to adapt to new environments without losing their distinct identity and their concern for equality (to some extent) between the Manchus and the Chinese. The Manchus implemented diarchy, for instance, where important administrative positions were shared among the Manchus and the Chinese. The economy and society changed during the Ming and Qing eras when China opened more to trade and Western influence, particularly during the Ming era. China also witnessed an expansion in population, trade, commerce, and territories. The population increased from 70 to 80 million in 1390 to more than 300 million at the end of the eighteenth century. China also exported tea, porcelain, and silk to England and traded with Russia and other nations. The Chinese, however, limited contact with the Europeans, who increasingly demanded access to other Chinese markets. These changes seem to be leading toward an industrial revolution on the European model to the degree that China was ripe for industrialization because of its access to people and resources, but it lacked dedication to technological developments because of its emphasis on moral principles than scientific knowledge. The society and economy of Japan changed during the Tokugawa era through trading with the West and manufacturing developments. These changes promoted rising standards of living. The Japanese culture reflected these changes by widened social class differences (i.e. social stratification of four classes: warriors, artisans, peasants, and merchants). The developments in Korea during this period reflected conditions in China and Japan to the extent that it modeled its political system after the

Journal Analysis Essay Example for Free

Journal Analysis Essay Current views of the world, desires, dreams, goals, and the demands placed upon society are constantly transformed by present epistemological beliefs. Schommer-Aikens and Hutter (2002) investigated the relationship between an individuals’ belief about knowledge, learning or epistemological beliefs and how this relates to average conversational issues (Schommer-Aikens , Hutter, 2002). Using a study group of 174 adults ranging in age from 17 to 71, Schommer-Aikens and Hutter (2002) posed questions assessing beliefs of knowledge and the speed control of learning. Feldman addressed how assumptions become scientific knowledge by stating â€Å"Sometimes we know things by reasoning or inference. When we know some facts and see that those facts support some further fact, we can come to know that further fact. Scientific knowledge, for example, seems to arise from inferences from observational data† (Feldman, 2003, p. 3). Understanding how assumptions move into scientific knowledge it becomes apparent how these assumptions are qualified in research. The authors used regression analysis to quantify the assumptions of the participants as they relate to knowledge, learning, multiple perspectives, and ultimately the development of epistemological beliefs. This analysis will further identify philosophical assumptions underlying the research; explain the practical significance of these assumptions and their effect on its applicability to other authors and post-positive thinkers. Philosophical Assumptions Underlying the Research. Feldman (2003) stated that epistemology, the theory of knowledge is a philosophy that looks into the questions about knowledge and rational. Epistemologist`s tend to focus or concentrate on questions of principal aspects involving knowledge and how those beliefs regulate coherent belief. Those within the field are less concerned about the validity of knowledge or coherent belief, be it correct or incorrect but focus more on causes (Feldman, 2003, p. 1). To that extent Schommer-Aikens and Hutter (2002) conducted a survey of 174 participants, including 120 women and 54 men. The ages of the participants ranged from 17 to 71 years of age and included various personal and educational backgrounds. Through the Schommer epistemological questioner participants, including chemical engineers, clerks, homemakers, factory workers, pharmacists, and teachers of both genders. These participants were asked a number of questions that incorporated religious, educational, societal and personal beliefs. Questions were ranked in a likert- type scale ranging from strongly disagrees to strongly agree (Schommer-Aiker, Hutter, 2002). Philosophical Assumptions. Schommer-Aikens and Hutter state â€Å"The results coming from epistemological research suggest that individual`s beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning are linked to their comprehension, metacomprehension, interpretation of information and persistence in working on difficult academic tasks† (Schommer-Aikens, Hutter, 2002, p. 6). The authors contend that individuals who believe knowledge is isolated into segmented bits and not taken as a sum total perform more poorly in the compression of mathematical, physiological, and medical textbooks (Schommer-Aikens, Hutter, 2002). This statement confirms that knowledge or epistemological commitments are a collection of data and understanding and not segmented or isolated bits of information. The assumption is those who tend to segregate knowledge and who do not attain a higher degree of education have difficulty in their own epistemological commitments. This is further evident in the writings of Quine and Kuhn as these authors beleive science is a continuation of common-sense (Delanty Strydom, 2003, p. 22). According to these authors common, everyday decisions made by the common man and woman play a significant role in the creation of science. Whereas the purpose of the epistemological study was to extend epistemological beliefs to an individual’s everyday life, it was also designed to reflect on academic studies. This particular article using the Schommer epistemological belief survey makes several assumptions. Those assumptions state those with a higher level of education are more likely to take on multiple perspectives, withhold decisions until information was available, acknowledge the complexity of everyday issues and were willing to modify thought processes or thinking (Schommer-Aikens, Hutter, 2002). The inference is those who take knowledge as a collection of data, not as segmented bits along with the attaining of a higher level of education were equipped for complex or critical thinking. This enabled each to understand the complexity of life, make crucial decisions, understand varying viewpoints and able to adapt as understanding grew. These assumptions have a practical significance and affect research. The Practical Significance of Assumptions and Their Effect on Research Inferences and practical assumptions are drawn during the research of this article, and one could argue some of the assumptions made were drawn before the research study ever began. Through personal epistemological beliefs society has long held the conviction those who attain a higher level of education are able to deal with the complexities of life. The practical significance of assumptions and their effect on the research conducted are visible in the work of Johnson and Duberley as they state â€Å"both within and outside of our organizations our behavior is internally motivated, and internally justified, by what we believe about â€Å"the World† (Johnson Duberley, 2000, p. 2). Often in preparing for such a survey the focus group of participants used along with the questions themselves distort the data and thus the results to achieve a desired result. While in this case the participants have diverse backgrounds and have achieved differing degrees of education, making such assertions could distort data. Assumptions and Research Methodology Kuhn preferred historical science and by building upon prior knowledge Kuhn (2012) believes this research and evidence was already available enabling that data to be tested using deferring mechanisms to either prove or disprove a current or prior theory. While not opposed to the empirical testing, it was his belief that details must be obtained for research. It is through this historical science and data that assumptions within society and within science about our understanding of epistemological belief have come into existence. Popper states the empirical method makes good use of a criticized approach to the method (Delanty Strydom, 2003). The empirical method tests each system ensuring the best system moves forward after all methods have been tried, tested, and proved. Schommer-Aikens and Hutter (2000) used questions, including â€Å"You never know what a book means unless you know the intent of the author† and â€Å"Its a waste of time to work on problems which have no possibility of coming out with clear-cut and unambiguous answers† (Schommer-Aikens, Hutter, 2000). These answers along with others were used as a measurement in epistemological belief comparing their answers and their level of education to gauge how those answers compared with historical norms (Schommer-Aikens, Hutter, 2000). This data was then taken and a regression model developed to extract the stated research and ultimately assumptions made. Schommer-Aikens and Hutter (2000) in turn came to the same assumptions and epistemological commitments already held within social and physical science to date. The research quantified and validated the assumptions held by historical science that one’s epistemological beliefs are shaped and re-shaped by the ability to link through learning, multiple perspectives, and ultimately the development of epistemological beliefs. The ability for humans to use successfully address complex issues, attain paradigm shifts in their understanding of the world and develop are inevitably linked with thought processes and knowledge gained through higher education. Conclusion A person’s thoughts, feelings, emotion, and beliefs often shape ones decision-making process. Other components, including perception, memory, introspection, and reasoning also assist in the formation of opinions, shape our knowledge, and transform an individual’s viewpoint (Feldman, 2003, p.3). Perception is how one sees the world around them, the sights, sounds, smells, and other senses creates an understanding of the external environment creating a mental image and often places an attachment to it. Through their research Schommer-Aikens and Hutter (2002) investigated the relationship between and individuals’ belief about knowledge, learning or epistemological beliefs and how this relates to average conversational issues (Schommer-Aikens , Hutter,2002). Using the regression model the authors quantified the beliefs and assumptions the conclusion of which is a culmination of historical science supported by this recent research. While post-positive thinking like Kuhn, Quine, and Popper may differ in view about the empirical method, testing, and paradigm shifts as theories change over time the core belief of epistemological commitment remain comparable. A sentence sums up this article and the accompanying research as it pertains to epistemological belief. Those with a higher level of education are more likely to take on multiple perspectives, withhold decisions until information was available, acknowledge the complexity of everyday issues and were willing to modify thought processes or thinking (Schommer-Aikens, Hutter, 2002). References Delanty, G. Strydom, P. (Eds). (2003). Philosophies of Social Science: The Classic and Contemporary readings. Philadelphia, Pa: Mcgraw-Hill. https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content Feldman, R. (2003). Epistemology. Prentice Hall. The University of Phoenix. https://ecampus. phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content. Kuhn, T. (2012). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago, Il. University of Chicago Press . https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content. Schommer-Aikins, M. , Hutter, R. (2002). Epistemological Beliefs and Thinking About Everyday Controversial Issues. Journal Of Psychology, 136(1), 5. https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content. Johnson, P. Duberley, J. (2000). Understanding Management Research: An Introduction to Epistemology. Thousand Oaks CA. Sage Publishing. Prentice Hall. https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content.

Supervisory Approaches in Education

Supervisory Approaches in Education In this chapter a review of related literature on instructional supervision and its relationship with professional development is provided. The chapter is divided in to four parts as to enable the reader to follow a logical sequence that includes: history of school supervision, overview of supervision approaches, teachers perception of supervisory processes, and the relationship between supervision and professional development. 2.1 History of School Supervision In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more attention has been given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleons Regime at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801 (Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms inspector and inspection are still being used in various developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007). Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in their teaching- learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and preferring the term supervisor over that of inspector. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses education methods advisor, and Uganda teacher development advisor. The concepts of supervision and inspection have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that: Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12) From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management. According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers. However, since the Woreda is the lowest administrative level and had a direct contact with schools, more practical support and guidance are expected from the assigned supervisors at this level. As it is clearly mentioned by the Educational Management, Schools Organization, Finance, and Community Participation Guideline (MoE, 2002), supervisors have the following key responsibilities: Ensuring whether teacher -student relationship is healthy and democratic, teachers are properly executing their tasks, education is based on the needs of students, the relation between schools and community, mobilizing community, ensure the existence of help and respect sprit between teachers and students, provide professional support, follow up and training for teachers. (p. 30-32) 2.2 Overview of Supervisory Approaches According to Blasà © and Blasà © (1998), although many supervisory approaches are collaborative in nature, for long time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described supervision as a ritual they [supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without much consequence (p. 203). This author continued that today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education (p. 204). He explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled. Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to u se (p.1). It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because supervisory authority and control are essential for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and implement a range of professional growth opportunities designed to meet teachers professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is a summative process that focus on assessing the compete nce of teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individuals professional competence at specific time (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should go hand in hand (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers professional growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990). The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso Firth, 1990; Clarke, 1995; Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as follows. Clinical Supervision According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a face- to- face contract with teachers with the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed to improve the teachers classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according to Snow-Gerono (2008) is to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers abilities to be self-supervising (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure o f clinical supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with: inexperienced beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving their instructional performance. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches collaborate to research their practices and improve their teaching and learning (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality of teaching and students performance (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Collaborative Supervision Collaboration and collegially are very important in todays modern schools. According to Burke and Fessler (1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an ethical and professional responsibility of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003). In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that needs do not exist for professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward improvement (Burke Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision which are especially needed for beginner or novice teachers are: peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring (Shower s Joyce, 1996; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Sullivan Glanz, 2003; Kutsyuruba, 2003). Peer coaching Peer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as teachers helping teachers reflect on and improve teaching practice and/or implement particular teaching skills needed to implement knowledge gained through faculty or curriculum development (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice and feedback following staff development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for efficient communication, and involve them in decision making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to develop communities within which teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value- when we learn together, we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students (p. 251). Thus, peer coaching provid es possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative relationships, participatory decision making, and immediate feedback (Bowman McCormick, 2000; Sullivan Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Cognitive coaching According to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to a nonjudgmental process built around a planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described, cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however, when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further identified three components of cognitive coaching: planning, lesson observation, and reflection. Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely: (1) developing and maintaining trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior; and (3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy- the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze (Garmston, Linder Whitaker, 1993). Mentoring Mentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is a process that facilitates instructional improvement wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff member (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors as: The mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213) Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of teachers (Reiman Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and to learn ways to overcome them. As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved. Self-Reflection As the context of education is ever changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self-assessment reflective practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. Glatthorn further described that self-directed approaches are mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) considered this option to be efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others. Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision teachers work alone by assuming responsi bility for their own professional development (p. 276). Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is an option provided for teachers that enable them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes (p. 200). In addition, this approach is particularly suited to competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Portfolios As teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers professional growth and abilities (Riggs Sandlin, 2000). A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records, photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth through self-reflection, analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing (p. 215). The writers further described that portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships. Professional Growth Plans Professional growth plans are defined as individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop and carry out relating to the teaching (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read, and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans could produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and increased focus and commitment to learning (p. 422). Summative Evaluation There is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda, 2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components: formative evaluation and summative evaluation (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers professional growth, where as summative teacher evaluation is designed to judge and rate the quality of ones own teaching and level of professional growth. In this regard, the purposes of instructional supervision are formative- focused on teachers ongoing professional development, and the intents of evaluation are summative- assessment of professional performance which leads to a final judgment (Zepeda, 2007). However, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that both formative and summative teacher evaluations cannot be separated, for each contains aspects of the other. Summative evalua tion, therefore, uses various techniques such as, administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment tools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). 2.3 Teachers Perception of Supervisory Processes From laypersons conducting school inspection in the 18th century, up to the practice of neo-scientific management, instructional supervision in most schools of the world has focused on inspection and control of teachers (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), historically the evaluation function of supervision was rooted in bureaucratic inspectional type supervision (p. 22). The writers further described that teachers view supervision for the sake of evaluation as often being anything other than up lifting. In a study of supervision and teacher satisfaction, Fraser (1980) stated that the improvement of the teaching learning process was dependent upon teacher attitudes toward supervision (p. 224). The writer noted that unless teachers perceive supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory practice will not bring the desired effect. Kapfunde (1990) stated that teachers usually associate instructional supervision with appraisal, rating, and controlling them. In Ethiopia, many teachers resent or even fear being supervised because of the history of supervision, which has always been biased towards evaluation or inspection (Haileselassie, 1997). Regarding the challenges of teachers, it is stated in various literatures that beginning teachers face more challenges than more experienced teachers. Teaching has been a career in which the greatest challenge and most difficult responsibilities are faced by those with the least experience (Glickman, Gordon Ross-Gordon, 1998, p. 21). At least 30 percent of beginning teachers leave the profession during the first two years (Casey Mitchell, 1996). For many less experienced teachers, supervision is viewed as a meaningless exercise that has little value than completion of the required evaluation form (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1998). The writers further described that no matter h ow capable are designated supervisors, as long as supervision is viewed as doing something to teachers and for teachers, its potential to improve schools will not be fully realized (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 5). Teachers do not perceive supervision as helpful for their teaching and professional growth when its approach is focused on teacher appraisal and efficiency (Acheson Gall, 1992; Zepeda Ponticell, 1998). Various literatures identified supervision to be unfamiliar with most teachers because of its evaluative structure (Acheson Gall, 1992). According to Smyth (1991), the cause for resistance to supervisory practices by most teachers is the hierarchical and explotative form of teacher evaluation introduced by some types of supervision. In line with this, Acheson and Gall (1992) said that the hostility of teachers is not towards supervision but the supervisory styles teachers typically receive. Thus, selecting and applying supervisory models aimed at teachers instructional improvement and professional growth is imperative to develop a sense of trust, autonomy, and professional learning culture (Hargreaves Fullan, 2000). 2.4 Relationship between Instructional Supervision and Professional Development The overall purpose of instructional supervision is to help teachers improve, and this improvement could be on what teachers know, the improvement of teaching skills, as well as teachers ability to make more informed professional decisions (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). According to Zepeda (2007), there must be a clear connection of instructional supervision to professional development and teacher evaluation. She added that the various models or approaches of instructional supervision such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, etc. bridge instructional supervision and professional development. Instructional supervision, with its focus on collegiality and professional improvement, is an important tool in building an effective teachers professional development. Instructional supervision is an organizational function concerned with teacher growth, leading to improvement in teaching performance and greater student learning (Nolan Hoover, 2008, p. 6). It is clear that continuous improvement in methods and skills is necessary for every professional, and so the professional development of teachers has become highly important (Anderson Snyder, 1998; Carter, 2001; Zepeda, 2007). Professional development is an important part of an ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their classroom management skills, their ability to adapt to instruction to meet students needs, and establishing a professional culture which is important in teaching and learning (Wanzare Da Costa, 2000). Professional development gives emphasis on the development of professional expertise by involving teachers in a problem solving and action research (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan (1997) on the other hand, stated that as fields of educational development, instructional supervision and professional development are interlinked and can and should overlap as needs and local preferences dictate (p. 159). From the supervisors view point, professional development emphasizes providing teachers with the opportunity and resources they need to reflect on their practice and to share their practice with others (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 216). Instructional supervision and professional development are linked in several ways. As McQuarrie and Wood (1991) noted one connection to be through the use of data obtained from supervisional practices used in planning and implementing staff development as part of instructional improvement and helping teachers improve their skills. The writers further stated that both instructional supervision and professional development: (1) focus on teacher effectiveness in class room; (2) may be provided by teachers, supervisors, and administrators; (3) are judgment-free practices that improve teachers instructional activities in a collaborative ways; and (4) promote in their participants a sense of ownership, commitment, and trust toward instructional improvement. Anything supervisors can perform to help teachers develop and strengthen becomes an investment in promoting professional development (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). And thus, professional development allows teachers to make their own decisions regarding their knowledge and skills improvement and to assume personal accountability (Retting, 1999; Kaagan, 2004). Professional development needs of beginner teachers differ from those experienced teachers, and special supervisory approaches should be developed to meet these needs (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), beginning teachers are characterized by their preferences for certain types of supervisory approaches. Most importantly, they need intensive assistance of clinical supervision. Similarly, they need mentoring, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, and other collegial supervisory approaches. The writer further noted that experienced teachers also have their own special professional development needs and preferences. Most experienced teachers can benefit from collaborative and self-directed supervisional practices which will foster continuous professional growth and development. In general, instructional supervision is an ongoing process which enables teachers the opportunity to develop professionally and different supervisory options should be provided for different teachers based on their experience and level of difficulty.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart :: essays research papers

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a remarkable musician and composer. Mozart was born in Salzburg Austria in 1756. By the age of four it was evident that he possessed tremendous musical talent and music memory. His father Leopold who was a master violinist and composer decided to enroll young Wolfgang in harpsichord lessons. At age five Mozart was composing music and by age six he had mastered the keyboard. By his early teens, he had mastered the piano, violin, and harpsichord and was writing symphonies and operas. Amadeus is a drama of the 18th century in Vienna Austria, starring Tom Hulce as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Murray Abraham as Salieri, Elizabeth Berridge as Constanze Mozart, and Jeffery Jones as Emperor Joseph II. It is a biographical film that is as much about Salieri as it is about Mozart. Amadeus is a portrait of Salieri and the overwhelming jealousy he had for Mozart. From the time Salieri was a little boy he was consumed by music. He wanted nothing more but to be a legend in the music world, but Mozart is portrayed as a college preppy who is rude, arrogant and extremely talented. Although he is extremely talented it is also obvious he wants to be a common man in society. After attempting to commit suicide Antonio Salieri finds himself in a mental institution. He once was a court composer for Emperor Joseph II. He had written forty operas of his own and Mozart was his living idol. Unlike Mozart’s’ father, Salieri’s father did not like music and did not support his efforts. While a patient in the institution the story of Amadeus is related by Salieri to a priest. He tells him of his jealousy for Mozart and his distrust of God, because God gave Mozart all the talent and did not pass that talent to him. Salieri’s downfall occurred when Mozart was invited to the royal manner of Emperor Joseph II and simply astounded everyone. Salieri is immediately overwhelmed with jealousy. Mozart seems to lead a rebellious life but his operatic works simply overwhelmed the royalty and higher ups. At age twenty-six Mozart married Constanze against his fathers will. After his marriage, finances were extremely tight, due to the fact he was a poor businessman he eventually led a life of poverty. Due to the fact his wife Constanze was subjected to a plot of sabotage by selling Mozart’s music to Salieri. When she became pregnant the lady that stayed with them and cared for the family was also involved in an attempt to pass his music on to Salieri. Both attempts were quite risky since Mozart never made additional copies of his works. Prior to the birth of their first child Mozart’s father moved in

Illiberal Institutions :: Liberalism Society Family Religion Essays

Illiberal Institutions We all lives are governed by the institutions like law, government, religion, education, family, employment market and others. All these institutions tends to look towards the formation of a society. They do not say that society is made up of aggregated individuals but that individuals are the product of society. This is a conservative notion which is in conflict with the ideology of liberalism. To look at all the institutions within which we live our lives and focus on their characteristics is beyond the scope of this essay. In this some of these institutions would be reviewed and their political approach would be examined. Where possible I would try and look at the whole institution on its own, but where the discussions about the whole institution is too broad, the focus would be on specific examples of the attitude of the institution. In case of law, I would emphasise would be on the laws treatment of women and how that shows the law approach to be illiberal. In religion I would be focusing on one kind of religion, Islam to show how all religions are conservative. In the same way focus in education would be on boarding schools. The rest of the institutions: family, employment, government and market economics are covered in singularity as institutions. As I mentioned earlier the focus in respect to religion would be Islam. I intend to look all some of the basic rules and principles of Islam and examine their attitudes. Islam believes in the authority higher then humans. It believes in the sovereign power of God which is called Allah in the religion. He is suppose to be higher than all the other beings in the world. He is referred in Quran (Muslims’ holy book) as the Creator and Sustainer of lives. This means that all the human are dependent on Him for their living. This is against the liberal theory, which believes in all beings, being equal. Thus, this concept of higher authority brings out the conservative attitude of the religion. Allah is the ultimate authority in an Islamic society and all the rules and regulations emerge from him. There are two kinds of duties that a Muslim owes one to Allah and the others to his fellow beings. The duties owed to Allah are Tauheed (believe in oneness of God), Salat (five time prayers), Fasting and Haj (the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.

Post War New Zealand :: essays papers

Post War New Zealand During World War II New Zealand greatly depended upon Britain and her Royal Navy to provide New Zealand with security and protection throughout the Pacific region. But after a while New Zealand and Australia as neighbouring countries began to provide their own defence for the Pacific. So when Britain began to build Naval Bases in Singapore, both Australia and New Zealand contributed to its cost. Also the Royal New Zealand Air Force and the Royal New Zealand Navy were established in order to provide more protection. Even though New Zealand was becoming more independent in providing most of their security, she still depended a lot upon Britain and this trust and dependence broke when the Pearl Harbour was attacked sinking two of Britain^s battleships ^Prince of Wales^ and ^Repulse^ and the fall of Singapore did contribute to New Zealand drift from Britain for security. So New Zealand turned to the United Stated of America for security in the Pacific. Now New Zealand began to take responsibility for foreign affairs and had her own for! eign policies. Since WWII New Zealand had close relations with Australia considering that they are neighbouring countries. So in 1944 New Zealand and Australia signed the Canberra Pact. After the war the two countries agreed to set up a ^regional zone of defence^ in the South West and South Pacific including Australia and New Zealand and the islands north and north west of Australia across to Western Samoa and the Cook Islands. Through the Canberra Pact the governments of the two countries agreedthat on matters of common interest they will consult each other before expressing their views to others. The two governments also agreed to establish an advisory regional organisation, which could be called the South Seas Regional Commission, on which there might be representatives of Australia, New Zealand, Britain, France and USA. New Zealand now looked upon to the United Nations for security for she too believed in maintaining world peace through collective security. New Zealand joined the fifteen specialised agenises of the UN which aimed at raising living, health and educational facilities to backward countries to prevent causes of war and international bitterness. Also she supported formations of economic and social council, contributed to the annual budget and took responsibility for Western Samoa. New Zealand also tried to establish security through the Commonwealth. There are Commonwealth Head of Government Meeting (CHOGM) every two years where all the heads of states from all forty nine countries in the Commonwealth come and discuss their activities and plans for the future.

Heredity, the Environment, and Development Essay

The field of behavioral genetics strives to understand how and why we develop the way we do. Behavioral genetics seeks to find how not only heredity, but also environment, plays a role in the development of human beings. The field has evolved quite a bit in the last few years. Studying genetics helps us to be able to predict future behaviors and also potentially help us to use genetic engineering. Since the study of behavioral genetics can potentially lead us down the road of genetic engineering it attracts a lot of controversy. As will be examined here genetics shows some strong correlations between heredity and environment. The field has studied numerous examples to help explain what is caused by heredity, what is caused by environment, and how the two can be linked together to further understand why we behave the way that we do. Behavior Genetics†Human behavioral genetics, a relatively new field, seeks to understand both the genetic and environmental contributions to individual variations in human behavior.† (McInerney, 2008) Human behavior genetics studies how an individual’s genetics and environment influences their behavior. â€Å"Behavior genetics focus is on the effect of heredity on differences between individuals.† (Boyd & Bee, 2006) Heredity refers to genetic and traits being transmitted from one generation to the next or from the parent to the offspring. â€Å"Traits or behaviors are believed to be influenced by genes when those of related people, such as children and their parents, are more similar than those of unrelated people.† (Boyd & Bee, 2006) Behavior geneticists study behavior genetics and the way they can affect an individual. Behavior geneticists have shown in their studies that heredity can affect some traits and behaviors, like intelligence, shyness, and aggressiveness. The basic concepts of behavior genetics are: phenotypes which are observable or measurable characteristics (hair and eye color); genotype which are genetic complement of an individual, like having a recessive gene for color blindness; polygenic which is many genes influencing a trait but no one gene has a major effect (hundreds of genes influence IQ and personality). Correlations between Heredity and EnvironmentCorrelation between heredity and environment can be looked at through genotypes or a person’s â€Å"unique genetic blueprint† (Boyd & Bee, 2006) and the environment which a child tends to experience. Active genotype environment correlation, evocative genotype environment correlation, and passive genotype environment correlation are three casual mechanisms to describe the correlation between heredity and environment in relationship to human behavior (Scarr & McCartney, 1983, p.4). Genotype environment correlations affect phenotypes through the course of a person’s development (p.4). A child’s development stems directly from traits his or her parents pass along and environmental experiences therefore behavioral genetics has developed theories of the correlation between heredity and environment. Active genotype environment correlation is defined as a child’s tendency actively to seek environments he or she finds to be â€Å"compatible and stimulating† (Santrock, 2002,  ¶2). An example would be a child who is introverted tends to seek solitary environments. A child who is extroverted tends to seek out social environments. Evocative genotype environment correlation is â€Å"when the child’s genotype elicits certain types of physical and social environments† ( ¶19). The responses a child receives from his or her environment molds the child’s development. A child who demonstrates a pleasant disposition evokes positive reactions in his or her social environment for example. (Scarr & McCartney, 1983, p.4) Passive genotype environment correlation describes correlation based on the â€Å"rearing environment† (Santrock, 2002,  ¶31) supplied by the â€Å"biological parents† . The explanation the passive type of correlation is the parent passed the genes to the child and supplies the environment in which the child is raised. The environment a parent supplies is directly related to the parents genes which were passed to the child hence the correlation (Scarr & McCartney, 1983, p.4). The example given by Scarr and McCartney is one of a positive nature. A parent who is well versed and enjoys the activity of reading books reads often to the child. The child will most likely be well versed at reading books and enjoy the activity based on the environment provided and the genotype inherited. The Ugly Side of EugenicsAs mentioned previously, the ethical study of genetics is a concern. Galton and his American colleague, Charles Davenport, studied and promoted eugenics in an effort to improve the quality of humans and to create a better future for mankind. Galton and Davenport researched patterns for undesirable character traits such as alcoholism, insanity, the propensity for criminality. In time, certain behavioral tendencies were linked to particular races. Lehrman cited examples of Davenport’s characterizations of â€Å"Italians as drawn toward crimes of personal violence, Greeks as slovenly, and Swedes as tidy† (1998,  ¶8). Society began to adopt laws and policies based on the principles of Galton’s and Davenport’s findings with the purpose of correcting social and economic problems before they started. Although Nazi Germany was the first country to rationalize mass sterilization and then extermination of a race based on their perceived inferiority, the United States also contributed to the mindset of an inferior people. As many as 30 states had legislation concerning the sterilization of people regarded as genetically inferior. The horror and immorality of the holocaust discredited eugenics. Ethics are a guiding force for today’s human behavior geneticists who seek to understand traits that enhance the human race and those that are harmful (Lehrman, 1998). Twin StudiesIdentifying traits that are beneficial and those that are harmful is just the first of many steps. Behavior geneticists must also identify correlations between the genes humans inherit and the environment that humans are fostered in. Researchers have an exceedingly difficult task before them since experiences and environments are intricately influenced by genetic predispositions. For example, identical twins both are born taller than average. When they complete surveys for behavioral geneticists, they both score high for people who are extroverted and self-confident. Is this because they have a â€Å"self-esteem† gene, or is this a result of society reacting towards them in a manner with more respect and attention because they are tall (Piercy, nd.)?Likewise, a child who is predisposed towards shyness will not seek out social situations that are uncomfortable to her. She may not choose to participate in organized sports. Whatever athletic ability or talent she may possess will remain dormant. Due to her choices, she will not receive any instruction to develop athletic ability.  Conclusions that outgoing individuals possess more athletic ability could be grossly inaccurate (Boyd & Bee, 2006). Due to the difficulty found in the previous two illustrations, most research involves fraternal and identical twin sets for the following reasons: †¢Fraternal twins raised together show a correlation with a shared environment but not agenetic sameness. †¢Identical twins raised apart as adoptees show correlations for non-shared environmentsbut a shared genetic foundation. One such study examined the influences of heredity and environment on the differences of children’s conversational language use among twins. The study measured language skills with two standardized tests among 380 twins. According to the study, more than half of the variance in conversational language skills can be attributed to genetics. Additionally, evidence was not found to support significant shared environmental influence. This study sheds new light on this issue. Previously, differences were attributed to environmental influences such as premature birth and low birth weight (DeThorne et al., 2008). Conclusion â€Å"To be born and die are common to all animals, but there are specifically diverse ways in which these phenomena occur.† (Aristotle, trans. 1984). How humans grow and mature behaviorally is important in understanding the impact heredity, shared and non-shared environmental experiences have on humans. As humans age behavioral social-environmental and psychological changes emerge in a direct correlation with cultural and environmental influences. Environmental, heredity and behavioral genetics all give rise to â€Å"obesity, pre-diabetes, atherosclerosis, cancer, immune-suppression, menopause, and osteoporosis† (Biological, Social-Environmental, and Psychological Dialecticism: An Integrated Model of Aging, 2000). As well with age innate biological changes impact our brain based on both shared and non-shared environmental experiences. A keen understanding of morbidity, mortality and how genetics influence both health and behavior are all important factors in how biological changes in the  brain are associated with each stage of aging. Human behavior can be influenced by genetic pre-dispositions as well as shared and non shared environmental experiences each of these forces account for physical changes and/or declines throughout adulthood. References Blumenthal, H. T. & Von Dras, D. D. (2000). [University of Phoenix e-Text]. Biological, Social-Environmental, and Psychological Dialecticism: An Integrated Model of Aging. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Boyd, D., & Bee, H. (2006). Lifespan Development (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn &Bacon, Inc. A Pearson Education Company. DeThorne, L., Petrill, S., Hart, S., Channell, R., Campbell, R., Deater-Deckard, K., Thompson, L. A., & Vandenbergh, D. (2008). Genetic effects on children’s conversational language use. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 51 (Issue 2), Retrieved June 4, 2008, from EBSCOhost database. Lehrman S., (1998). DNA & behavior: the topic in-depth. Retrieved June 6, 2008, fromhttp://www.dnafiles.org/archive/about/pgm2/topicMcInerney, J. (2008, September 16). Behavioral Genetics. Retrieved April 8, 2009, fromwww.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/behavior.shtm1Piercy J., (n.d.). Psychology 230. Retrieved May 20, 2008, fromhttp://courses.cvcc.vccs.edu/Psychology_Piercy/. Sandrock, J. (2002). Life-Span Development: A topical approach. McGraw-Hill HigherEducation. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072435992/student_view0/glossary.htmlScarr, S. & McCartney, K. (1983, April). How people make their own environments: a theoryof genotype → environment effects. Child Development. Vol. 54 Issue 2, p424, 12p.

Vark analyis paper

Learning Styles This paper will explore the kinesthetic learning style identified by the VARK questionnaire. This paper will look into the dentified characteristics of a kinesthetic learner as well as the dfferent learning and studying strategies that can make the kinesthetic learner successful. Preferred Learning Style: Kinesthetic learning Is a style of learning that Is based on being actively Involved In the learning process. Kinesthetic learners use all five senses to be able to grasp Ideas and retain the Information that is being taught.The kinesthetic learning style nables the learner to learn material by â€Å"doing† such as with â€Å"hands on activity. It is essential that these learners have activity involved in their education. Kinesthetic learners have to be active participants in their learning in order to retain taught information. â€Å"Kinesthetic learners need to move around and work with ideas. They need to be touching or doing things that pertain to the ma terial being taught. Kinesthetic learners sometimes have difficulty sitting still in class and Just listening as they are â€Å"hands on learners†. The more actively you are Involved in doing a skill, the better you learn It.The more skin and muscles you use, the better you remember. Even small motions that seem unrelated to the activity help these learners to understand materiel. Kinesthetic learners learn best by doing or experiencing the Information being sought out. The more senses you can Involve In learning, the better you will remember it. † (Nelson, 2013) Preferred Learning Strategies: Kinesthetic learners do well with labs, demonstration, field trips and hands on experiences. The kinesthetic learner should attempt to take the concepts that are being taught and convert those ideas into â€Å"real† experiences.With the use of case studies and applications this can assist the kinesthetic learner to retain taught information as well as help with recall of in formation at a later on time. Learning tools that benefit the Kinesthetic learner include: being comfortable, kinesthetic learners are comfortable with studying in places such as a comfortable chair or sitting on the floor; listening to music or the TV, kinesthetic learners do study well while listening to music or with the television on as this allows them to use the hearing sense; also allowing room to move, kinesthetic learners need room to move round and change posltlons while studying.Preferred and Identified Learning Strategies: similarities are numerous. The author of this paper is a kinesthetic learner. The author prefers to understand an idea through â€Å"hands† on experience. The VARK learning strategies mirror the author's preferred learning strategies. The ability of the learner to have self-assurance in their studies is increased once the learner has identified and put into practice learning strategies that work best for them. Changes Needed in Study Habits: As stated previously, kinesthetic learners will flourish in an environment that is onducive to active participation by the learner.With that said kinesthetic learners must learn to adapt methods of study and learning to be successful in other learning environments. These environments can include online learning and lecture halls. Changes in study habits that can benefit the kinesthetic learner include practicing how to take organized notes during a lecture or online discussion. This â€Å"practice† can enable the learner to utilize one of their strengths. Also, practicing Strategies from other learning styles such as recording and re-listening to a lecture at a later time ay help the learner to make information more concrete.VARK Learning Style Analysis Summary: The VARK learning style analysis assists not only the teacher but the student as well to identify different learning styles. The VARK learning analysis identifies five different learning styles: visual, aural, reading/wr iting, kinesthetic, and multimodal. â€Å"Visual learners learn best by seeing. Things such as charts, diagrams, illustrations and handouts are beneficial learning tools for this type of learner. Visual learners prefer to see information in a visual form. Auditory learners (Aural) learn by hearing information.

Isc English for 11 and 12 Std

In â€Å"Church Going†, the poet expresses the same disrespectfulness towards church as â€Å"In Westminster Abbey. † The Church, also known as the house of God, is seen by the poet as a current building and all being alike, â€Å"another church: matting, seats, and stone†¦ † some brass and stuff† which gives the reader a very dismissive attitude fromthe poet. He agrees with Betjeman that the church disserves no believe or respect â€Å"Hatless, I take off my cycle-clips in awkward reverence. Instead of commenting on the beauty of the church, he looks at the roof asking himself if it is â€Å"cleaned, or restored†Ã¢â‚¬  It seems that the poet is even more disrespectful than Betjeman donating an Irish sixpence and then further emphasizing, â€Å"reflect the place was not worth stopping for. † The poet is for sure that churches will fall down except for some, which will be kept as a chronic symbol where women will bring their children to touch a particular stone believing that they will work as a spell. His opinion is that â€Å"superstition, like belief, must die. This supposes a strong blow againstthe church and towards believe. Philip Larkin asks himself who will be the last to see the church before it deteriorates completely â€Å"some ruin-bibber† some â€Å"Christmas-addict† someone obsessed with church or someone just like him who has no believe or sympathy withthe church. For the poet, the church is the place of marriage, birth and death and believes that that causes people to become fanatic towards church because they see it as the place that marks the most important points of life. Larkin also sees the church trying to make people see natural things of life such as birth and having children as being in their destiny and that people will always look for the spiritual side. In conclusion, I would say that the poets are conscious of the poetic diction they use in order to bring through their feelings about the church. They do not see any reason or need for which religion and believe exist and want superstition to be gotten rid of. They see the Church as a place, which manipulates people for their own benefit. The use of less poetic devices such as â€Å"oh bomb the Germans† in â€Å"In Westminster Abbey† or â€Å"bored, uniformed, knowing the ghostly silt† in â€Å"Church Going† does not suggest that this in any way makes the poems less â€Å"poetic† in any sense at all. John Betjeman and Philip Larkin seem to be wanting the readers to be aware of the church and protect them from it. Summary: Wilfred Owen's poem â€Å"Anthem for Doomed Youth† is typical of Owen's abrupt, straightforward, and abrasive approach to describing war. Owen states in the poem's beginning that soldiers die on the battlefield as cattle in a slaughterhouse; with little meaning, and with no loved ones there to comfort them. The end of the poem is more sentimental; while no funeral takes place on the battlefield, all individuals have something resembling a funeral, even if it takes the form only of their loved ones weeping. The poem's overall tone indicates that Owen resents promoters of war who do not consider the full magnitude of war and pities the soldiers who know not what may happen to them. {draw:rect} Known for his abrasive and heart-wrenching depictions of war, Wilfred Owen is known for going right to the heart of the reader through his poetry to evoke his or her raw emotions. In the poem, â€Å"Anthem For Doomed Youth†, Owen once again finds the shortest and most abrupt and straight-forward descriptions he possibly can to describe soldiers being slaughtered on the battlefield. Not only is Owen describing their deaths, but he is describing, how they die: with indifference among them. There is no separate emotion for each man, they die all the same, like cattle going off to the slaughterhouse. The poet appears to be portraying war as a situation that one should avoid, because although one is dying for their country, initially, their death is one of little meaning. They are not among family and†¦..

Evaluate the idea that class conflict is on the decline in contemporary France, paying particular attention to the strikes of winter 1995

Evaluate the idea that class conflict is on the decline in contemporary France, paying particular attention to the strikes of winter 1995. Abstract: Evaluate the idea that class conflict is on the decline in contemporary France, paying particular attention to the strikes of winter 1995. A critical evaluation into the decline of class conflict in contemporary France requires an in-depth analysis into the various political and economic subject areas which surround the issue of class struggle. The main objective of this paper is to discuss declination of class conflict in France and to discuss the significance of the 1995 winter strikes. A conclusion is to be reached after a thorough but concise assessment of this movement and its effects on French class struggles. In order to evaluate this issue there must be a thorough understanding of French political culture in the years post World War II, together with a comprehensive understanding of the specific events and movements that led to an alleged decline. The implication of European integration and French economy must also be understood, as well as the relation of this movement to the values of the left in France compared to that of the right. To initiate this evaluation, one of the factors that must be taken into consideration is France's volatile political culture. One could describe French culture as volatile, because of the numerous changes the French political system has undertaken over the last century. Some may suggest that they are still suffering from teething problems of a relatively new republic and the episodes of 1995 and the elections of 2002 still prove that the French are a nation who are susceptible to political issues they feel may blur their traditional way of living. One of the arguments brought forward is that the strikes of 1995 were ‘fundamentally sectional stemming from national fragmentation and French nationalism than any vision of a different future.'1. This is to be discussed in this paper, along with the factors of, economic change in France due to the conditions of the Maastricht treaty; trade unionism and socialism vs. liberalism in relation to the strikes. Firstly, when mentioned the consensual perception of class conflict tends to be based on the proletariat vs. the bourgeoisie. An old argument that has filtered through to contemporary politics via social and hierarchical structures that were originally discussed by Karl Marx. The question in hand asks one to look at a possible decline of class conflict in France. However some would argue that it still remains in France, just not as explicitly as before. Nonetheless the aim here is exploit literature and modern thought to suggest that it has. A classic definition of class conflict can be found in the ‘Communist manifesto' Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.2 For Marx and Engels, class conflict or class warfare as it is described by Marxists, surrounded the notion of two main classes. This can be seen in the fragment ‘oppressor and oppressed' and the coupling of the descriptive terms, the bourgeoisie were the ruling class and the proletariat were seen as the submissive class with little or no control over production. In the case of the France in 1995, these two classes can be identified as Jacques Chirac and his government taking on the role as the bourgeoisie and the numerous activist workers taking on the role as the proletariat. Here it can be discussed that the view of a socio-political imbalance between those with excessive wealth and those with little wealth is a common thought amongst Marxist's, but arguably a concept that is declining in contemporary French politics. However, looking back on French politics in the last 50 years, is there sufficient evidence to support this notion? The role of political culture is imperative in this discussion and often gives reason to the actions of the masses under a system of rule by the elites. The political culture of France has an almost unforgiving tradition of being conflictual alongside a highly activist nature, using previous strikes in 1935 and 1968 as examples. The division in political ideologies into the left and right, arguably goes back to the French Revolution and continues to remain an important characteristic in the contemporary arena. Consensus often has been reached by uniting behind a strong, charismatic leader, de Gaulle is the prime example here, only to be lost when the leader dies or goes into disfavour. Cycles of consensus followed by alienation seem to be typical of the French political culture.3 While there is admiration for the French nation, language and culture, there are also continuing disagreements caused by these traditions. Division over the meaning of these universal symbols leads to political, ideological and partisan fragmentation. The French seem to combine a distrust of politicians and the political system with a devotion to political s truggle.4 It becomes apparent that the issue of class struggle was once again thrown into the centre of the French political agenda, because of the essential ‘reform' that France needed in order to progress as an intergratable nation state, in relation to the EU. The ‘sà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cu' otherwise known as the social security plan devised by then French Premier Alain Juppà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ , was received by the public sector workers, with resentment and anger, with the consensual feeling amongst academics and French citizens that EU criteria for satisfactory budget deficit, was the driving force behind the 1995 strikes. This plan coupled with the tradition and characteristics of French political culture have been blamed for the uprising of 1995 and the discontent of the French nationals that was witnessed all over the globe. However just how ‘essential' was this reform by freshly elected Premier Juppà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½? The proposed reforms, were all but too far for the French working class, from the proposals of an increase in work before pension entitlement to the taxation programs suggested, the French working class felt they were being victimised by a bourgeois government, echoing the previous period of revolt in 1968. By introducing such an austere program it put the new right wing government in a bad situation, which would ultimately, lead the way for devastating repercussions. Nonetheless, this set of measures was seen as crucial for reassuring the foreign exchange markets that France would be able to stick to the Maastricht timetable. However, these plans were obviously not essential enough for the 5 million citizens that protested against it. Of course, if an individual or a section of society feels that government plans are not in their best interests and will effectively jeopardise their current position, why shouldn't they protest? However it is this type of attitude that have led some to describe the French nationals as being sectionalist and backward looking. By using this sectionalist argument in favour of declination, Tony Adreani comments that we are witnessing the disappearance of major social conflicts, the decline of revolutionary ideologies, the replacement of class struggles with single issue and sectoral movements and a general pacification of society'6. However this comment was made two years before the 1995 uprising which in turn, proves Adreani theory as unfounded in this case. Expanding on this further, it could be suggested that France needed such harsh reform in order to move forward with European integration. The Juppà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ plan threatened to sacrifice short term discontent for long term prosperity, unfortunately using proposed tactics that were unfavourable to those from the lower classes. Thus, igniting the issues of class struggle once again. By introducing such a plan a perception was drawn that the elites are too far removed from the lives of the ordinary French citizen. At this point of the discussion it can be suggested that one may find difficulty in arguing that class decline is present, but class consciousness in fact, is increasing as France becomes more fragmented. On the other hand, it could be suggested that class decline was present because of the handling of the situation by the lower class. With one of the original definitions of the proletariat being unable to control the means of production and in order to survive they must sell their labour to capitalists. It becomes apparent from these strikes that the workers who protested, have realised their rights to be treated equally and their activism was a direct attack on the government and its ideals. Rather than the working class, settling for reform, they protested to protect their privileges. To strengthen this argument, the participation in each mobilisation and the support that it received from intellectuals increased the feeling of a unified state. These factors give foundation for the argument, in the sense that the lower classes would not let the ruling class exploit their powers over them anymore. Although the strike did not involve the private sector, there was enough disruption to immobilise the French economy and force the governments to negotiate with the workers, through the trade unions. Which leads to the next point of evaluation, the role of the trade unions. The unions play a role of incredible complexity in the movement of 1995. The values of the Left in France, embrace trade unionism and working classes and in a majority of democratic states, the role of mediator between governments and workers should theoretically provide a democratic and logical way of fusing the ideologies and interests between organised workers and the employing classes and attempt to blur the struggles between them. Trade unionism participation in France is a reflection of the political culture, volatile and susceptible to change. In fact coexistence of more than one union within the same occupation is a fundamental feature of French trade unionism. Which may explain the low level of trade union membership, due to the overwhelming amount of choice. However, although the Juppà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ plan involved the reorganisation of a large part of the public sector, the unions were not consulted. The undermining behaviour of Juppà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ towards the unions, only fuelled the tension between the governments and the unions, which proved to be a catalyst for the resurrection of class struggle. This move by Juppe, saw the unions questioning their role as partners to the government. The influences of the masses are epitomised by the 1995 French strikes. Illustrated by the way the government tried in vain to stop these strikes, the CGT and the FO would not back down until they were absolutely sure of withdrawal of the welfare reform plan. However, not all unions were united on the movement, as Chris Harman argues, ‘ union bureaucracies always try to end mass strike movements when they go beyond a certain point†¦ Political issues are raised and that requires the sort of political response that the trade union bureaucracy is incapable of making'7 From this, it can be argued that the barriers of political negotiation can be described as a restrictive mechanism for the working class against the elites. In direct relation to class, trade unions can be described as the basic organisation of the lower class which are â€Å"not only a natural, but also an essential phenomenon under capitalism and†¦ an extremely important means for organising the working class in its daily struggle against capital and for the abolition of wage-labour†. But once established, the trade unions cannot confine their sphere of activity to economic demands, but inevitably tend to move into the political plane8. This has been proved by the negotiations which took place after the government backed down. However the governments tend to have the upper hand when political negotiation is involved. Here, what is involved is not the occasional struggles of individual groups of workers against their employers, but the struggle of the proletariat as a whole against the bourgeoisie as a class, and its state. In conclusion, the winter strikes of 1995 had a profound effect on the consciousness of the working class in France. The social upheaval that lasted for five weeks involving hundreds of thousands of workers was undoubtedly the highest expression of the class struggle in France since the revolutionary crisis of 1968. The ruling class only narrowly avoided an extension of the strike to the private sector, in which case the movement could have rapidly assumed a pre-revolutionary character. Indeed, it was the growing threat of such a development, in spite of the treacherous role of the trade union leaders, which eventually forced the Juppà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ government into an embarrassing retreat.9 The radicalisation of the working class as a whole was an awakening of a formerly immobile section of society and the shift of middle class and rural opinion to the left all indicate that French society is hurtling towards a new confrontation between the classes. Which finally leads to a conclusive disagreement that class conflict is on the decline. The factors assessed above hold far too much substance to be dismissed and for all classes to come together as a united front. The elites and the working class, will remain apart until there is a common political and ideological consensus, amongst all parties involved.